THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA

The great wall of China is a place of defense for the borders of the northern and northwestern parts of China. The wall runs along the east to the area surrounding Goadai, Gansu Province. On the west there is an inner wall running from the surrounding area of Beijing almost to Hadan.
The largest portion of the wall was erected by Shih Huang Ti. He was the first emperor of the Ch'in Dynasty. It was made for defense against raids by nomadic people.
Work on the wall started about 221 B.C, after Shih Huang Ti had united China. It was finished by about 204 B.C. Small sections of the wall might have already existed, but Shih Huang Ti is supposed to have had about 1900 km (about 1200 mi) of the wall erected during his rein. In later centuries, especially during the period of the Ming Dynasty (A.D 1368-1644), the Great Wall was repaired and extended. The fortification finally reached a length of about 2400 km (1500 mi). It follows the courses of rivers instead of bridging them. It conforms to the contours of the mountains and valleys in its way.
The wall is built of earth and stone. There is brick on the east side of the wall. It is from 4.6 to 9.1 m thick at the base and tapers to about 7.6 m.
There is no wonder why I chose The Great Wall Of China as my own wonder. Did you know that you can even see "The Wall" from outer space?

LEANING TOWER OF PISA , ITALY

The Leaning Tower of Pisa is the third structure by time in the Cathedral Square and is situated behind the Cathedral.

The tower presently leans to the southwest at an angle of 3.97 degrees. At the beginning it intended to stand vertically but was impossible due to a poorly laid foundation and loose substrate that has allowed the foundation to shift direction. The height of the tower is 55.86 m from the ground on the lowest side and 56.70 m on the highest side. Its weight is estimated at 14,500 tones.

History

Two different masses of cannon balls dropped of the tower to demonstrate that their descending speed was independent of their mass. So it’s considered an apocryphal tale because the only source for it comes from Galileo’s secretary.

A work of art that performed in three stages during 177 years, the construction of the first floor of the white marble campanile began on 1173, and is surrounded by pillars, classical capitals, leaning against blind arches. In 1178 the tower began to sink after construction of the third floor, the cause was a mere three-meter foundation, set in weak, unstable subsoil. Later the construction was subsequently halted for almost a century, the Pisans still engaged in battles with Genoa, Lucca and Florence, which allowed to the underlying soil to settle. In 1198 temporarily clocks was installed on the third floor of the unfinished construction.

Leaning Tower of Pisa and Cathedral

In an effort to compensate the tilt, the engineers built higher floors with one side taller than the other, but the tower start to lean in other direction and actually it’s curved. In 1284 the construction was halted again and in 1319 the seventh floor was completed and the bell-chamber was not added until 1372. Tommaso di Andrea Pisano built the bell-chamber with the Romanesque style of the tower.

There are seven bells, one for each note of the musical scale, and the largest one was installed in 1655.
1st bell: L’assuna, weight 3620 kg.
2nd bell: Crocifisso, weight 2462 kg.
3rd bell: San Ranieri, weight 1448 kg.
4th bell: La Terza, weight 300 kg.
5th bell: La Pasquereccia or La Giustizia comes from Easter, because it used to ring on Easter day, weight 1014 kg.
6th bell: It Vespruccio, weight 1000 kg.
7th bell: Dal Pozzo, weight 652 kg. The bell announced capital executions of criminals and traitors, but a new bell was transferred on the bell tower to replace the broken Pasquareccia bell at the end of the 18th century.

Benito Mussolini ordered that the tower be returned to a vertical position in 1934, so the concrete was poured into its foundation and the catastrophic result was that the tower actually sank further into the soil. 

In 1964, the government of Italy prevents the tower from toppling but was necessary considered to retain the current tilt due to the vital role in the tourism industry of Pisa. On the Azores islands a multinational task force of engineers, mathematicians and historians was assigned to discuss stabilization methods. The reason was the stonework expanding and contracting each day due to the heat of sunlight. Many methods were proposed but only after over two decades of work on the subject, the tower was closed to the public. The solution was to slightly straighten the tower to a safer angle, by removing 38 m3 of soil from underneath the raised end. It was straightened by 45 cm to the position that occupied in 1838, and after a decade of corrective reconstruction and stabilization efforts, the tower was reopened to the public in 2001, and it was declared stable for at least another 300 years.

TAJ MAHAL , INDIA

The Taj Mahal is standing majestically on the right bank of River Yamuna at a point where it takes a sharp turn and flows eastwards; the Taj Mahal is synonymous of love and romance. The Taj Mahal complex is organized in a rectangle, measuring approximately 310 x 550 meters. It comprises a number of buildings and structures, all functioning together as the funerary monument for Mumtaz Mahal.

The entire architectural complex mainly consists of five major constituents the Darwaza (The main gateway), Bageecha (The gardens), Masjid (The mosque), Naqqar Khana (The rest house), Rauza (The main mausoleum).

The Taj Ganj area leads to the southern gate into the forecourt of the Taj Mahal complex, although the eastern and western gates of the Jilaukhana are more frequently used by tourists. The latter two gates are identical, with central pointed-arch Pishtaqs flanked by octagonal pilasters crowned with Guldastas (ornamental flower pinnacles).

The southern gate is similar to the east and west ones in its verticality. Due to the natural gradient of the site, which slopes toward the riverbank, this gate lies 2.4 m above the ground elevation of the Jilaukhana itself. Two bazaar streets begin at the east and west gates and lead to the Jilaukhana. The bazaars consist of individual rooms (Hujra) along an arcaded Verandah of multi-cusped arches that are supported on slender columns. The Jilaukhana consists of a large courtyard with 128 hujra rooms opening directly onto the courtyard.

To the northeast of the Jilaukhana are the khawasspuras, two residential enclosures. The north side of the Khawasspuras abuts the southern galleries that flank the great gate to the east and the west. The outer southern corners of the enclosures in the khawasspuras have rooms giving access to latrines. The two Saheli Burj (inner subsidiary tombs) enclosures to the east and west of the Jilaukhana are the tomb complexes of two other wives of Shah Jahan. The saheli burj enclosures have gardens arranged in the Chahar Bagh style, with a pool of water in the center surrounded by paved walkways.

The tomb buildings are octagonal, single-story structures, built on a plinth. The walls are formed of multi cusped arcades. The building and its plinth are clad in red sandstone; the structure is topped by a bulbous white marble dome. Inside, the south door of both of the Saheli Burj tombs leads to the cenotaph within. The colours of the exterior cladding are reversed in the interior: the walls are clad in white marble, while the Jalis and ceiling are sandstone.

The great gate (darwaza-i rauza) is a large structure with triadic openings the base of the gate measures nearly 38 meters and its peripheral walls, including the cupolas, are 30 meters in height. The central Pishtaq, also including the cupolas, is 33 meters in height and 19 meters wide. The gate is composed of red sandstone with decorative panels and accents in white marble.

The entry Iwan contains Muqarnas in red sandstone, which contrasts with the white plaster paint outlining each segment. Topping the central Pishtaq is a series of eleven arches in red sandstone, capped by a chajja. This arrangement of architectural elements into rows is found on both the north and south side of the gate, in keeping with the design of the Taj Mahal complex and its internal hierarchies. The corners of the gateway are accentuated by engaged towers, also of red sandstone, that project outward slightly; these towers are decorated with frames of white marble.

The pointed arch on the south elevation of the darwaza-i rauza partially frames the visitors' first glimpse of the main structure, the mausoleum of Mumtaz Mahal. Flanking the darwaza-i rauza on the north, two double arcaded galleries of multifoliate arches known as the southern galleries, one to the east and one to the west, overlook the large garden that precedes the main mausoleum. The columns of the outer and inner arcades differ only in the decoration of their bases: the outer ones have floral decoration alluding to the garden. The platform of the galleries extends into the garden, and its decorative tile paving pattern faces the garden. The galleries terminate on the east and west ends in rooms which are entered from within the gallery.

A shallow water canal (nahr) runs along the centre of the primary walkways; a line of equidistant water fountains runs down the center of the nahr. Geometric patterns in red sandstone depicting regular and elongated stars decorate the edges of the central pathways running on each side of the nahr. At the intersection of the primary walkways is a raised platform with a square water tank (Hauz) at its center. Five fountains are located within the tank, one at each of its four corners and one in its center. The east-west walkways terminate in two-story pavilions (Naubat Khanas) that merge into the outer garden walls. Aqueducts supplied water to the garden from the Yamuna River just north of the mausoleum. The central fountains operated with an underground system of copper vessels connected by copper pipes. At present the garden contains relatively few trees, consisting mainly of fairly maintained grass lawns.

The two Naubat Khanas (drum houses) are constructed on raised platforms and have two floors. On each level, the naubat khanas have a triple archway in the center of the east and west elevations, respectively. On the ground level, the arches are closed with a Jali screen; on the upper level, they remain open. The floor slab of the upper story projects beyond the wall above and below to form a balcony as long as the building; carved red sandstone handrails run along its length, and carved sandstone brackets help support it from below. The Tahkhana, a gallery of rooms arranged in a row and connected by a narrow corridor, is reached by two staircases that descend from openings in the surface of the plinth to the east and west of the mausoleum.

The secondary, square marble plinth, 93 meters long, is centred on the sandstone terrace. The mausoleum proper and the four minarets flanking it are placed on this marble plinth. The base of the plinth is decorated with delicate carvings of vegetal motifs, which also appear on the white marble cladding of the mausoleum.

In the mausoleum of the Taj Mahal complex, the central chamber is double-height and octagonal in plan. At its center rest the cenotaphs of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan. The chamber is capped by a shallow dome and decorated with niches on each two-story wall. These niches on the cardinal axes have Jali screens, fitted on the external faces of the walls, which allow light into the room. The niches on the diagonal axes hold rectangular doors. The niches are separated into lower and upper stories by an inscription band that runs around the interior. On the upper level, these frames are replaced by Muqarnas that begin to transform the octagonal plan into a circular ring for the dome. The shallow dome, which is the lower portion of the double dome used for construction, thus appears as decorated with an extended pattern of the Muqarnas that support its base.

The floor of the tomb chamber is tiled with octagonal marble stars in alternating cruciform modules, each outlined with inlaid black stone. Each side of this marble octagonal screen is divided into three panels; only one opens to access the cenotaph. The cenotaph of Mumtaz Mahal is a rectangular block placed on a platform decorated with Quranic verses on the upper block and naturalistic motifs on the lower base.

On the roof of the mausoleum is a high drum, topped with a bulbous dome measuring 25.6 meters high by 17.6 meters wide. Four diagonally placed chhatris flank the drum. The terrace provides a view of the garden below; it is accessed by staircases from the ground floor that lie on either side of the entrance to the mausoleum. The four elevations reflect the symmetry of the mausoleum's plan. The two frames flanking the central Pishtaq contain blind arched niches on the upper and lower levels. Each corner of the building presents a chamfered elevation (to the northeast, northwest, southeast, and southwest).

The frame of the mausoleum's central Pishtaqs, as with other similar forms within the complex, is decorated with an inlaid Thuluth inscription of a Quranic verse. At the Pishtaq's highest point is a linear pattern of floral motifs running between two extended engaged columns capped with guldastas. As compared to the larger central Pishtaqs, these two sub-pishtaqs are less elaborately treated, with pilasters on the outer elevations decorated with an inlaid herringbone pattern in black and dark yellow. These pilasters are flanked by square panels, framed with horizontal and vertical chevrons, at their base.

The mosque and Mihmankhana are located to the west and east of the mausoleum building. Symmetrical and identical in design, it is conjectured from records that the mosque was built first, followed by the Mihmankhana. The mosque has a Mihrab in its Qibla wall, highlighted by a marble frame with an inscription of the Sun Sura. The floor of the mosque also differs from that of the Mihmankhana; it is patterned in Muslim prayer mats. The ceilings are finished in the Sgraffito technique, consisting of a coat of red plaster laid over a white one. Floral designs are later carved through the red layer, to appear in white.

The southwest tower contains a Stepwell (baoli) whereas that to the south of the Mihmankhana holds chambers leading to latrines. The southwest tower with the baoli also has a well shaft running down the centre of the structure and extending through its five floors: three above, two below. The two tower pavilions north of the mosque and Mihmankhana contain chambers leading to latrines on the lower levels, and stairs leading toward the riverbed. The four riverfront towers are each octagonal in plan. Each tower has a central room with an ambulatory path circling around the exterior. The exterior walls have multi-cusped blind arches; each terrace has an Oriel window (Jharoka) with views of the river. The towers are clad in red sandstone and have floral motifs carved in relief with marble inlays on panels.

History

Taj Mahal was built by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan (1628-1658), grandson of Akbar the great, in the memory of his queen Arjumand Bano Begum, entitled Mumtaz Mahal a Muslim Persian princess. The queen’s real name was Arjumand Banu. In the tradition of the Mughals, important ladies of the royal family were given another name at their marriage or at some other significant event in their lives, and that new name was commonly used by the public.

She died while accompanying her husband in Burhanpur in a campaign to crush a rebellion after giving birth to their 14th child. When Mumtaz Mahal was still alive, she extracted four promises from the emperor: first, that he build the Taj; second, that he should marry again; third, that he be kind to their children; and fourth, that he visit the tomb on her death anniversary. But this has not been proven to be true, till date.

According to legend, after his wife’s death, Shah Jahan reportedly locked himself in his rooms and refused food for eight days, when the emperor emerged from his seclusion, his black beard visible in many Mughal miniature paintings had turned completely white. For the monument to his wife, Shah Jahan chose a site occupied by sprawling gardens on a bend in the left bank of the Yamuna River. Six months later, her body was transferred to Agra to be finally enshrined in the crypt of the main tomb of the Taj Mahal. The Taj Mahal is the mausoleum of both Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan.

The Taj Mahal

The construction of Taj Mahal started in the year 1631 and it took approximately 22 years to build it. It made use of the services of 22,000 labourers and 1,000 elephants for the transportation of the construction materials. The materials used in the Taj Mahal complex are bricks, sandstone and white marble. Brick sizes varied between 18-19 x 11-12.5 x 2.3 cm, a standard size since Akbar's rule. These bricks were baked in kilns on the outskirts of Agra. The sandstone used in the complex has a colour varying from soft red to red with a yellow tint. White marble came from the quarries of Makrana in Rajasthan, approx. 400 kms southeast of Agra. The marble used in the complex was a white one with black and grey streaks.

The greatest technical problem in the construction of the Taj Mahal was its heavy superstructures near the riverfront. This was accomplished using wells cased in wood and filled with rubble and iron, spaced at 3.75 meters on center. Precious and semi-precious stones are used in the decoration of the mausoleum than elsewhere in the complex. These stones include lapis lazuli, sapphire, cornelian, jasper, chrysolite and heliotrope. A strict discipline in colours and decoration is visible in the detailed ornamentation of the Taj Mahal. Floral relief carvings are found on the marble and sandstone walls; these carvings are stylistically related to the pietra dura work, yet are worked according to the material of the building they adorn.

The Taj Mahal architecture is a kind of fusion of Persian, Central Asian and Islamic architecture. Specific design credit is uncertain, and is given by different sources to Istad Usa, Ustad Ahmad Lahori, Isa Muhammad Effendi or Geronimo Veroneo. But construction documents show that its master architect was Istad Usa, the renowned Islamic architect of his time. The documents contain names of those employed and the inventory of construction materials and their origin. And how the entire complex is designed in such a way that the apparent organic unity of the whole does not obscure the individuality of any part, nor does it detract from the prominence of the Taj Mahal proper. It was completed in 1648 at a cost of 32 Million Rupees (more than 750 000 dollars).

THE FORBIDDEN CITY

The Forbidden City is known also as the Palace Museum, the Gugong (in Chinese) Museum or the Purple Forbidden City. It is the largest and best preserved imperial palace in China. This awesome palace is located in Beijing city to the north of Tiananmen Square (the ceremonial center of current Republic of China) and it was the official residence of the Chinese Emperor from the mid Ming Dynasty (1368 - 1644) until the last emperor of the Qing Dynasty (1644 - 1911). In total the Palace was the home of 24 Chinese emperors.

The Forbidden City is one of the five most famous palaces of the world together with the Palace of Versailles, the Buckingham Palace, the White House and the Kremlin. The Forbidden City was constructed as a replica of the Purple Palace where God lived according to the Chinese mythology therefore the palace was a sacred place, and so it was forbidden to the ordinary people.

The Forbidden City is the largest palace of the World. It occupied an area of 74 hectares. It is surrounded by a great moat of 6 meters deep and 10 meters high. The Palace is a giant rectangle of 961 meters long for 753 meters wide. The walls are 8.62 meters wide at the base and 6.66 meters at the top; they were designed as defensive walls and were made using rammed earth. The complex is composed by 980 buildings and around 8707 rooms.

The four corners of the great rectangle have each one an intricate tower with complex roofs that represents the Pavilion of Prince Teng and the Yellow Crane Pavilion. These towers are the elements most prominent from outside palace. The main entrance to the Forbidden City is through the Tiananmen gate. Behind the Tiananmen gate is the great courtyard of the palace. Here the complex is divided into two parts: the inner court and the outer court (also called working area or front court). The courtyard contains some of the most representative elements of the palace: the “stream of golden water” and 5 beautiful bridges ornamented with carved torches.

The outer court was used mainly with ceremonial purposes and to host the imperial affaires. It is composed by all the buildings of the southern zone.

One of the most important rooms of the complex is the “Hall of Supreme Harmony” which is the largest in the palace and is 30 meters above the level of the surrounding square. This hall was the heart of the power in the country and is the largest wooden structure in China. The roof of this magnificent hall was decorated with a caisson with a coiled dragon. There had two other important halls: the Hall of the Central Harmony and the Hall of Preserving Harmony. The three salons had imperial thrones and were used to host the Imperial activities and ceremonies. Behind the Hall of Preserving Harmony is the greatest stone carving of China, an impressive stone piece that weights around 200 tons.

The residence of the Emperor, his concubines and the Eunuchs of the palace was located in the inner court at the northern section of the complex in the central north-south axis of the complex, which was the most important axis of the three that compose the Forbidden City. In the inner are the main buildings that served as home for the imperial family such as the Palace of Heavenly Purity, the Palace of Earthly or the Hall of Union. All these palaces have an extraordinaire architectural style and were luxury decorated

All the elements from the architectural shapes to the colors used in the Forbidden City were designed to symbolize religious and philosophical principles of the Chinese cosmology. This Palace is the abstract of several millenniums of culture.

It can visit the Forbidden City from 08:30 to 17:00 between April 1 and October 31 for 60 yuan and from 08:30 to 16:30 between October 16 and April 15 for 40 yuan. There are also many services to guide visitors available. There is an audio guide (40 yuan) device available in several languages like Chinese, Cantonese, English, French, Japanese, German, Spanish, Russian, Thai , Arabic and Italian. There are also multilingual guides, a tourist service center, bag check services, tourist souvenirs, books, post office and several restaurants where it can enjoy a good food or drink.

History

The construction of the palace was initiated in 1406 by the Yongle Emperor of the Ming Dynasty. The construction of the Forbidden City lasted around 15 years and almost one million workers were required to do this monumental work. The main materials used to build the palace were the Phoebe Zhenan (a fine Chinese wood) and marble blocks. The floors of the main halls were paved using golden bricks.

The Forbidden City

The palace was during over two centuries (1420- 1644) the residence of the Emperors of the Ming Dynasty. In 1644 a rebellion leaded by Li Zeching captured the Forbidden City and proclaimed Li Zeching emperor. But the rebels fled when an army leaded by the general Wu Sangui arrived with Manchu forces, during this fact some parts of the complex were burned. Some months later the Manchu forces took the power in China and they proclaimed Shunzi Emperor starting the Qing Dinasty. The new dynasty made some changes in the palaces and renamed some buildings. Besides, the new Manchu Emperors introduce the Manchu language in Beijing.

The Forbidden City was captured again in 1860 when the Anglo-Forces occupied the palace during the Opium War II. The final episode to the Forbidden City as Imperial Palace occurred in 1912 when the last Emperor Puyi abdicated. Nevertheless Puyi remained in the inner Palace until 1924 because of an accord with the Chinese government. During this time many treasures of the Palace were sold by Puyi or were stole.

From 1924 the Forbidden City became museum. But during the World War II because of the Japanese invasion, many of the treasures of the palace were evacuated by order of Chiang Kai-Sek to Taiwan. In 1961 the Forbidden city was listed by the Chinese government as one of the most important historical monuments under special preservation.

In 1987 the Forbidden City was declared World Heritage by UNESCO. Currently the Forbidden City is managed by an organism of the Chinese government “The Palace Museum”, which is executing a restoration project. Nevertheless, this administration has also taken controversial decisions, like to allow the presence of commercial enterprises such as Starbucks inside the Forbidden City.

This wonderful palace is without doubt today, the greatest symbol of the Imperial China in the capital of the country and it is together with the Great Wall the most representative Chinese national symbol.

PALAU REEFS

Palau is an Island nation in the Pacific Ocean composed by around 343 islands, whose surrounding seas and coasts are considered a wonder of the Underwater World. Palau is one of the greatest diving spots of the Earth. It is located to the southwest of Micronesia to 800 Kilometers (around 500 miles) of the Philippines.

In 1989, the  Palau aechipelago was ranked by the ecologist organization  CEDAM (Conservation, Education, Diving, Awareness and Marine-research) as one of the Seven Underwater Wonders of the World. Palau also known as Belau is an amazing coral reef which was shaped around two million years ago. The geology of the zone is quite diverse. The northern zone of Palau is composed by two atolls, whereas the biggest island “Babeldaob” has volcanic origin and some of its highest places are over 700 feet (214 meters) over sea level.

Despite, the corals of Palau are not the biggest of the world; they are probably the most beautiful and diverse. Besides, the great spectacle of biodiversity is easily visible in the clear water with visibility exceeding 200 feet (61 meters). It highlights the corals of the Ngameli Island, whose coral gardens own a beauty that any garden made by men can not match. These wonderful corals resembling pretty plants and flowers have all possible combination of colors, they are simply fascinating.

According many scientists Palau is the most biologically diverse coral reef of the world. Sea biologists have found 700 coral species and over 1500 fish species in the reefs of Palau. Some of the most famous species that live in this underwater universe are: yellow butterfly fish, blue-headed wrasses, trunk fish, emperor angelfish-black, Ngemelis corals, anemones, giant clams (whose bodies measure until one meter), red and green brittle stars, shellfish, big cuttlefish, octopus, squids, the bizarre cocodrilefish, sea turtles, dolphins, whales, sea cow, etc. All these species of fish attracts also a great variety of predators like sharks, manta rays, eagle rays amongst other.

Palau is famous also by its marine lakes and fresh water, the island has around 80 marine lakes, each of these lagoons hide a beautiful living world, which is not found any where else in the world, one of the most famous is the Jellyfish lake, an amazing marine lake which was isolated during millions of years and which has an impressive jellyfish population. Nevertheless, these jelly-fish are not dangerous; swimmers can swim free in the lake without scare of getting stung. This is because the jelly-fish evolved without predators (like turtles), therefore their stings got atrophied because of disuse.

Another paradisiacal zone of Palau is the “Blue Corner”, a beautiful place where the stream is swift and deep blue waters charm visitors, nevertheless, most corals in this zone are dead, therefore Blue Corner is inhabited mainly by manta rays and eagle rays. The sharks and jacks are also very common in this place.  

The “Rock Islands” are other famous landmark of Palau. These islands are a set of foliage covered islands, which seem to float above the sea water. At the Rock Islands, visitors can find beautiful and quiet sand beaches, as well as a marvelous underwater water adventure, diving amongst the beautiful and colorful corals and the remains of wrecks of ships of the World War II.

History

The Palau islands are a group of volcanic islands originated several million years ago by the volcanic activity in the Pacific Ring of Fire. The impressive coral reefs of Palau started their growing, short time after the formation of the archipelago. The first polyps colonized submerged volcanic mountains and produced a sedimentary material like cement, step by step each generation of coral polyps was creating an external skeleton around their soft bodies. These skeletons were used by the next coral generation which created a new skeleton. This continuous process built the wonderful coral reefs which we can see today.

Palau

It believes that first human inhabitants of Palau arrived around 2000 BC from the current Indonesia. In 1543 Europeans discovered Palau when the Spanish explorer Ruiz Lopez Villalobos arrived to the region. Palau was under Spanish control by long time, but the island received also influences from Great Britain and Germany, mainly from the XIX century. In 1899 Germany made a treaty with Spain to purchase several islands in the region including Palau, therefore Palau became a protectorate of Germany. The German government sent several scientists to study the region.

During the first half of the XX century, the island received a great influence of Japan until 1935 when the island became part of the Japanese Empire, being one of the main military bases of Japan in the World War II. When United States defeated Japan the island passed formally to USA. Finally Palau declared its independence in 1981.

Palau thanks to its impressive underwater wealth is visited today by many tourists, most of them are divers; nevertheless the island attracts also several historians, archeologists, hikers amongst other.

The island owns a very sensitive ecosystem, which must be protected; since, it can be easily destroyed by great waves of tourists; therefore some recent laws forbids the construction of any building in this natural paradise. Palau is one of the most wonderful places of the planet and also one of the places that must be more protected.

THE ROMAN COLOSSEUM (70-82 A.D) ROME , ITALY

This great amphitheater in the centre of Rome was built to give favors to successful legionnaires and to celebrate the glory of the Roman Empire. Its design concept still stands to this very day, and virtually every modern sports stadium some 2,000 years later still bears the irresistible imprint of the Colosseum's original design. Today, through films and history books, we are even more aware of the cruel fights and games that took place in this arena, all for the joy of the spectators.

CHRIST REDEEMER (1931) RIO DE JANEIRO , BRAZIL

This statue of Jesus stands some 38 meters tall, atop the Corcovado mountain overlooking Rio de Janeiro. Designed by Brazilian Heitor da Silva Costa and created by French sculptor Paul Landowski, it is one of the world’s best-known monuments. The statue took five years to construct and was inaugurated on October 12, 1931. It has become a symbol of the city and of the warmth of the Brazilian people, who receive visitors with open arms.

THE PYRAMID AT CHICHEN ITZA YUCATAN PENINSULA , MEXICO

Chichén Itzá, the most famous Mayan temple city, served as the political and economic center of the Mayan civilization. Its various structures - the pyramid of Kukulkan, the Temple of Chac Mool, the Hall of the Thousand Pillars, and the Playing Field of the Prisoners – can still be seen today and are demonstrative of an extraordinary commitment to architectural space and composition. The pyramid itself was the last, and arguably the greatest, of all Mayan temples.

PETRA , JORDAN

On the edge of the Arabian Desert, Petra was the glittering capital of the Nabataean empire of King Aretas IV (9 B.C. to 40 A.D.). Masters of water technology, the Nabataeans provided their city with great tunnel constructions and water chambers. A theater, modelled on Greek-Roman prototypes, had space for an audience of 4,000. Today, the Palace Tombs of Petra, with the 42-meter-high Hellenistic temple facade on the El-Deir Monastery, are impressive examples of Middle Eastern culture.

MACHU PICCHU , PERU

In the 15th century, the Incan Emperor Pachacútec built a city in the clouds on the mountain known as Machu Picchu ("old mountain"). This extraordinary settlement lies halfway up the Andes Plateau, deep in the Amazon jungle and above the Urubamba River. It was probably abandoned by the Incas because of a smallpox outbreak and, after the Spanish defeated the Incan Empire, the city remained 'lost' for over three centuries. It was rediscovered by Hiram Bingham in 1911.

WISCONSIN DELLS

Soaring high above you the cliffs of the Wisconsin River are the Wisconsin Dells. You see the tourist trap ahead and wonder, how and when did this start out? What did this place, now full of motels and water parks, used to be home to? Well, I shall tell you. The Wisconsin Dells started out as a small village by the name of Kilborn. The land which it stood on, which was a mile long and half a mile wide, was purchased in 1855 by the Wisconsin River Hydraulic Company. A man by the name of Mr. Holly was the first to settle there. The lots of the city were put into sale in 1856, and the sale was attended by many people from other cities close by. The lots were sold in a price range of $50 to $1,450.
Another important thing began in 1856. The first school was built. When opened, the first session was a class of 14. Later on, though, a new school house was built and more people came, making the total of all attending about 335.
Eventually the residents of Kilborn asked for better water supply. Even though a well 1,300 feet deep was drilled, more water came in. It ended up that they fixed up the old pipes.
On a different subject, the first steamboats on the Wisconsin River, came partway up in 1835. They were, besides the Indians, or Native Americans, the first to see the wonder of the cliffs and the deepness of the murky Wisconsin River. That is how the Dells got started.

REDHOOD TREES

 Have you ever seen a redwood? They are tall! They are also called Sequoias which is a common name for a group of big, majestic evergreen trees of the cypress family. They can grow up to 100 feet tall or more! The sequoias are so big, that they are even bigger than the whale! If you saw a picture of a full grown Sequoia with a person standing next to it, that person would only be a large dot! Even if you saw the person well enough to identify him, the Sequoia would be like a big, huge background and you wouldn't know that it was a tree! It would take about ten people to all hold hands around a Sequoia because the circumfrence is so big!
The Giant Sequoia is found on the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada . A Sequoia is estimated to weigh as much as 2500 metric tons! If you wanted to know how old a tree was after it had been cut down, you could look at the stump, and count the number of rings it has. Once you figure that out, you'll know how old the tree is (was). Some trees have been 2300 years of age. However, some other trees have lived up to 4000 years!
The leaves on a Giant Sequoia are scale like and lie close to the branches. The bark is spongy in texture. The wood is light, and highly resistant to insects and fire.
At one time, the most popular Sequoia was the dawn redwood. Its height is just about 100 feet and its diameter is about 6 feet.
Do you see that picture next to this. That little red dot is actually a person standing next to the Giant Sequoia! Can you believe it?

BUTTERFYL MIGRATION

The butterfly is one of the most beautiful of all the insects. People love these pretty creatures. The beauty and grace of the butterfly inspired many artists and poets. The Greeks of the ancient world believed that a person's soul left the body after death and formed itself into a butterfly.
A butterfly begins as a little egg, which soon turns into a caterpillar. The caterpillar spends most of the day eating and growing. Only the caterpillar's skin doesn't grow with them. The caterpillar's skin then sheds and they form a larger body of skin. It repeats this at least several times. After the caterpillar is fully grown it forms a shell for protection, then it forms inside the shell. When this finishes it is a lovely butterfly.
I bet you knew that birds migrate, but it might be hard to believe that butterflies migrate too.
Spring comes and goes, but what do butterflies do over the winter when they have no shelter? They migrate! The big question is where do these creatures migrate? Some butterflies migrate in the south, central America, or they may even go to Mexico, to escape from the harsh and cold winter. In the spring they flutter back to their warm homes in the United States and Canada. Such a fast movement is called migration. One of these butterflies that migrates is monarch. It is the winner of long distance. The monarch can travel as far as 2000 miles, from Canada and the Northern States to California, Florida, and Mexico. The butterflies spend most of their winter time resting and saving up energy for their flight to return in the spring. Very few of the adults might not even make it to fly back. Female monarchs lay eggs as they fly back during the spring. Other butterflies that migrate include the painted lady, the cabbage butterfly, the red admiral, and the clouded yellow.
A group of kids want classrooms from around the world to made thousands of paper butterflies that will "migrate" to Mexico for the winter. Then they will be sent back in spring. To find out more about what this all means please visit Send a Monarch to Mexico.

RAINBOWS

Rainbows are awesome. Have you ever looked at them right after it rains, or through the water outside? Well, I have and I think that they are interesting.
A rainbow is an arch of light showing the colors of the light spectrum. The colors are seen in order with red on the outside, followed by orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.
Rainbows are caused by drops of water that are falling through the air. They are usually seen in the sky opposite to the sun at the end of a shower. They can also be seen in the spray of waterfalls.
When the sunlight enters a raindrop it is bent by and reflected from the drop. When this happens the light appears as a spectrum of colors. But, the colors can only be seen when the angle of reflection between the sun, the water drop, and the observer's line of version is between 40 degrees and 42 degrees.
The rainbow appears high when the sun is low in the sky, the rainbow is lower, when the sun is higher. When the sun is up higher than 42 degrees above the horizon, a rainbow cannot be seen because the required angle passes over the head of the observer. Do you think that the rainbows in the pictures are pretty and neat? I hope so!

STONEHENGE

 Stonehenge. You may have heard of it, you may not have. Stonehenge in considered by many to be an important landmark in space and time. We will many thousands of years back in time to explore this great monument.
Anyone who visits Stonehenge will probably be confused, and with good reason! They will have come through the car parking tunnel and then across a path, and they may not notice that they have just crossed the line of a bank, a ditch, and a ring of white concrete markers. They will probably be either staring up at the soaring stones above them or at the jumble of rocks at their feet.
"Who built it and why?" they will ask. People have wondered about Stonehenge for hundreds of years. We wonder who built it. Stonemasons wonder how the stones were cut to their rectangular shape. Engineers wonder how the stones were dragged to the site and placed upright. Jewelry and tools have been found near Stonehenge. Archeologists wonder at these. They wonder who made these things and who they made them for.
Anthropologists, too, wonder. What were the people like? Were they farmers, or did they hunt? Were they friendly, or war like? Some people believe that the people who built Stonehenge, were, as they say, Stone age Einsteins!
Now, you may ask, why was it built? Well, we're not exactly sure, but many think that its main purpose was to be used as some kind of calender. It marked important astrological events. It may also have had a religious purpose.
In the 1950's, archaeologists began excavations at Stonehenge. These proved that Stonehenge was built in three main stages from 2800 to 1500 B.C. over the many years between then and now , many of the stones fell or were dragged away to be used as bridges or dams. Scholars have learned what Stonehenge really looked like because of the stones remaining. This is a photograph of Maryhill Stonehenge, a monument built by Sam Hill as a tribute to soldiers who fought and died in World War I. It is a life-size replica of the original Stonehenge.
A wall of earth, 320 feet in diameter, surrounded Stonehenge.
Inside of the wall, thirty blocks of sandstone each 13 1/2 feet or 4 meters above the ground and weighing about 28 tons average, stand. On top, stones were placed end to end, balancing in a perfect circle. Then came 60 blue stones, about 4 tons average. Inside of this, 2 horse shoe forms were built, one inside of the other. A stone, 76 feet tall, stands 80 yards, or 73 meters, to the east of Stonehenge. This was put up in the first stage of building.
Some people think that it took 30,000 hours as well as hundreds of years to complete Stonehenge.
The British government began to restore Stonehenge not long ago, so now many generations can wonder at Stonehenge.

THE GREAT PYRAMIDS

The Great Pyramids were built between 2650-2500. It is said that they were a tomb of Khufu. They are located in Giza, Egypt. The largest pyramid is 756 feet long on each side and 450 feet high. It is made up of 2,300,000 blocks, that each weigh two and a half tons. It took 20 years for 100,000 slaves to build it. It required 112 men to lift each separate block.
Men that were great thieves wanted to get the hidden treasure that was hidden in the tomb.They found a small square room called the Queen's Chamber. It is a passageway. The Grand Gallery is another passageway to the King's Chamber. It is 34 feet long, 17 feet wide, and 19 feet tall. After not finding the treasure, the men got angry and tried to destroy the tomb but stopped after taking out 30 feet of stone.
No one knows what happened to King Khufu and his treasure.
Some people think that it was just an observatory, but we can't be quite sure because when people stated that, it was already over 2,000 years old. An astronomer observed a descending passageway above the Grand Gallery that could have been used for mapping the sky.
Now, except for parts of the Mausoleum and the Temple of Artemis, the Great Pyramids are the only things left standing of the 7 Ancient Wonders.

THE LIGHTHOUSE OF ALEXANDRIA

 Alexander the Great had seventeen cities named after him. Most of them are no longer around except for Alexandria, Egypt. This city is where the Lighthouse of Alexandria stood. Alexander died in 323 B. C. The city was completed by Ptolemy Soter, the new ruler of Egypt. The city soon became rich. The city needed a symbol and a mechanism to guide the trade ships into its harbor. Ptolemy started building the lighthouse in 290 B.C. It was completed 20 years later and was the first lighthouse of the world. It was also the tallest building with the exception of the Great Pyramid.
A man named Sostrates of Knidos designed the lighthouse. He thought it needed to have his name carved in the foundation. But Ptollemy II, who ruled after his father, refused and wanted his own name carved in. Sostrates, being a clever man, had this inscription put on the lighthouse: SOSTRATES SON OF DEXIPHANES OF KNIDOS ON BEHALF OF ALL MARINERS TO THE SAVIOR GODS. Then he covered it with plaster. Then they put Ptolemy's name into the plaster. As years passed, the plaster chipped away, leaving Sostrates declaration.
The lighthouse was built on the island of Pharos. 'Pharos' became the word 'lighthouse' in French, Italian, Spanish, and Romanian languages.
In the 10th century A.D., the lighthouse stood about 300 cubits high. That means that the lighthouse stood between 450 to 600 feet high. Wow!
This lighthouse was designed differently than modern lighthouses. It was more like a 20th century sky scraper. There were three stages which were piled on top of each other. The lowest level was about 200 feet square and was shaped like a huge box. The blocks on which the lighthouse was built were marble. There was a staircase in the lighthouse that led the keepers to the beacon chamber. In there, was a curved mirror. It was used to project a fire's light into a beam. Ships could detect the beam from the tower at night or the smoke from it could be seen during the day from up to 100 miles away.
I bet you're wondering what happened to the world's first lighthouse. Most accounts say that, like other ancient buildings, it was probably the victim of an earthquake. It stood for 1,500 years but was damaged by tremors in 365 and 1303 A.D. The final collapse came in 1326.

THE TEMPLE OF ARTEMIS

  The Temple of Artemis was one of Seven of the Wonders of the ancient world. It was so big that it took 120 years to make the temple. It's hard to believe but it was one of the largest temples built in the ancient times.
The temple was built in 550 B.C. It's foundation measured at 377 by 40 feet. It stood in the Greek city of Aphasias, on the west coast which we all know as Turkey. The whole temple was entirely marble except for its tile covered wooden roof. It was built as a dedication to the Greek Goddess Artemis.
The architects who made this temple were known as Chersiphron and his son Metagenes.
This temple didn't last long. In 550 B.C. King Cruesus of Lydia conquered Ephesus and other Greek cites of Asia Minor. During the fight, the temple was destroyed. Another temple was built in place of the first one.Then a man named Croesus Ephesian wanted to have his name in history. He managed to do exactly this by burning the temple to ashes. The citizens of Ephesus were so appalled that they said anyone who spoke of Herostratus would be put to death.
The temple also held many works of art. Four bronze statues of Amazon women are held in the Temple of Artemis. The length of this temple was 425 feet and the width was 225 feet. It has a sum of 127 columns, 60 feet in height that supported the roof.
Today the site of this temple is a marshy field. A single column has been erected to remind visitors that there once stood a Wonder of the Ancient World.

THE MAUSOLEUM OF HALICARNASSUS

In 377 B.C the city of Halicarnassus was the capitol of a small kingdom along the Mediterranean coast of Asia Minor. It was that year that Hecatomnus of Mylasa, died and left control of his kingdom to his son Mausolus. Mausolus in his life extended the territory even further so that it finally included most of Asia Minor. Mausolus, with his queen Artimisia, ruled over Halicarnassus and the surrounding territory for 24 years. Mausolus, though he was descending from the local people, spoke Greek and admired the Greek government and their ways of life. He founded many cities of Greek design along the coast and encouraged Greek democratic traditions.
Then in 353 B.C, Mausolus died, leaving Artimisia brokenhearted. As a tribute to him, she decided to build him a splendid tomb. It became a structure so famous that Mausolus's name is now associated with all tombs throughout our modern world - "mausoleum." The building was so beautiful and unique it became one of the Seven Ancient Wonders of the world!
Artemisia then decided that no money was to be spared on this wondrous tomb. She sent messengers to Greece to find the most talented artist of their time. The man who supervised the building of the temple was Scopas. Other famous artists who
helped were, Braxis, Leochares, and Timotheus joined him as well as several hundred others. The tomb was built on a hill overlooking the city. The whole structure sat in an enclosed courtyard. At the center of the courtyard was a stone platform on which the tomb sat. The staircase was flanked by stone lions to the top of the platform. Along the outer wall of the temple there were many statues of gods and goddesses. At each corner were statues of warriors mounted on horseback, guarding the tomb.
At the center of the platform was the tomb itself. Made mostly of marble, it formed a square block which tapered to about 1/3 of the size of the mausoleums 140 foot height. This section was covered with relief sculptures showing action scenes from Greek
myth/history. One statue showed the Greeks in combat with the Amazons, a race of the Warrior Women.
On top of this section of the tomb were 36 slim columns, nine per side, that rose another 1/3 of the height. Standing between each column was another statue. Behind the columns was a solid block that carried the weight of the tombs ceiling. The ceiling, which made up most of the final 1/3 of the height, was in the form of a stepped pyramid. Perched on top was the tomb's most important work of art. There were four massive horses pulling a chariot in which images of Mausolus and his queen Artimisia rode.
Soon after construction of the tomb started, Artimisia found herself in crisis.
Rhodes (an island in the Aegean sea) had been conquered by Mausolus and when they heard of Mausolus's death the Rhodians sent a fleet of ships to capture the city of Halicarnassus. Artimisia knew the Rhodians plan and she hid a fleet of her own ships at a secret location on the east end of the city's harbor. After the troops from Rhodes got off the ship to attack, Artimisia's fleet made a surprise raid, and captured the Rhodians fleet and towed them out to sea.
Artimisia put her own soldiers on the invading ship and sent it back to Rhodes . Fooled into thinking it was their own ship, the Rhodians where tricked into thinking the ship was coming back from Halicarnassus with victory. Surprisingly the soldiers on the ship where people from Halicarnassus and the Rhodians didn't put up defenses against the soldiers from Halicarnassus.
So Rhodes was easily captured again.
Artimisia lived only two years longer than Mausolus, both would be buried in the finished temple . According to the historian Pliny, the craftsman decided to stay and finish the tomb even after their leaders' deaths.
The tomb overlooked the city for many centuries, and was untouched until about 1404 A.D. It was ruined from a series of earthquakes. All that could be recognized as the Mausoleum was the large stone base.
Crusaders used the left over parts of the tomb to finish their castle.
One night a party of knights entered the tomb and found a huge coffin. It was too late to open it so they came back the next day to take any treasures that were there. The next day they were surprised to see the bodies missing. So the knights blamed the incident on the Moslem Village.
Today most of the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus can be seen in the mausoleum room at the British Museum. There, the images of Mausolus and Artimisia watch over the beautiful tomb Artimisia built for Mausolus.

THE COLOSSUS RHODES

It is sometimes called "Modern Colossus," but more often called the Statue of Liberty. The Statue of Liberty is somewhat like Colossus. Both were built as a celebration of freedom.
Originally, Colossus stood over 2,000 years ago at the Islands of Rhodes. It is located off of the southwestern tip is Asia Minor, where the Agean Sea meets the Mediterranean Sea. The capitol city, Rhodes, was built in 408 B.C.
In 357 B.C the island which was conquered by Mausolus of Halicarnassus (one of the other seven wonders) fell to the Persians in 340 B.C. and was finally captured by Alexander the Great in 332 B.C.
The Statue of Liberty, which is the same size as Colossus, weighs 225 tons! Colossus weighed a little more. Inside the statue were several stone columns, which acted as the main supports.
In the 7th century (A.D.) the Arabs conquered Rhodes and broke up Colossus, and sold it as scrap metal. It took 900 camels to take away the statue. It was a sad ending for what was a majestic work of art.
When Alexander died at an early age people could not decide who would reign. Three people: Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Antigous divided the kingdom between themselves. Antigous sent his son Semetrious to capture and punish Rhodes. The war was very long and painful. The city was protected by a strong wall. The attackers were forced to use siege towers and try to climb over it. Diameters had a second tower built. The second tower stood 150 feet high and 70 feet square at the base. It carried water tanks that were used to fight fires. The tower was mounted on iron wheels, and could be rolled. When Demetrious attacked the city, defenders stopped the machine by flooding a ditch outside the wall and moving the heavy machine in the mud.
To celebrate their freedom, the Rhodians built a giant statue of their patriot God Helious. Colossus was a Latin word, meaning any statue that is larger than life size.
They spelled it "Colossos" but then changed it to "Colossus." Colossus was built in 304 B.C. and it took twelve years to build it. The statue was 110 feet high and stood on the pedestal. Colossus was posed in a traditional Greek manner: nude, wearing a spiky crown, with his eyes shaded from the bright sun with his right hand while holding a cloak over his left hand.
Colossus stood shining in the sun for 56 years. Sadly, an earthquake hit Rhodes, and the statue collapsed. Huge pieces lay in the harbor for a long time. An Egyptian king decided to pay for reconstruction, but the people of Rhodes refused. They had feared that somehow, they had offended Helious who had used the earthquake to tear it down. Out of all of the wonders, Colossus was the one that stood the least amount of time. It stood for only 56 years, but in brief time won fame throughout the entire civilized world.

THE TEMPLE OF ZEUS

The olympic games were made in honor of the God Zeus. They were held in the shrine to Zeus located near the west edge of Greece in a city called Peloponnesus. The statue was simple at first, but as the games became more popular everyone could tell that they would need a new, larger temple that was worthy to the king of the Gods. Between 470 B.C. and 460 B.C. a new temple was started. The maker was Libon of Elis and the masterpiece he created, The Temple of Zeus, was finished in 456 B.C. It was built on a raised rectangular platform. The sides were supported by 13 large columns and six on each end.
Though the temple was considered great, many thought that it wasn't good enough for the King of Gods.
Inside they placed a statue of Zeus, created of ivory and gold over wooden frame. The statue was 22 feet by 40 feet tall. Zeus, placed on a throne, almost touched the ceiling.
None but a few pieces of the statue remain today. They are on display at a museum.
So with everything that I have talked about, the magnificence of the temple was so great it became a landmark, therefore making it so magnificent that it became what it is known to us as one of the 7 Wonders of the Ancient World.

THE HANGING GARDENS OF BABYLON

 In some stories, people say that the Hanging Gardens went hundreds of feet into the air, but through archaeological explorations people now think were probably weren't that big. The ancient city of Babylon, which was under King Nebuchadnezzar II, must have been a wonder to a travelers. In 450 B.C., a historian named Herodotus wrote, "In addition to it's size, Babylon surpasses any city in the known world." Herodotus said the outer walls were 80 feet thick, 320 feet high, and 56 miles in length. He said that it was wide enough for a four-horse chariot to turn. Fortresses and temples containing immense statues of solid gold were inside the inner walls.
Above the city was the famous tower of Babel, which was a temple to the God Marduk. It looked like it reached the heavens.
Archaeological examination has found that some of Herodotus's claims (the outer walls seem to be only 10 miles long, and not nearly as high) might not be true. But his story does tell us how cool the features of the city appeared to those who visited it.
Accounts indicate that King Nebuchadnezzar built the garden. He ruled the city for 43 years starting in 605 B.C. According to accounts, the Gardens were built by Nebuchadnezzer to cheer up his homesick wife. Where she came from, there was green grass and mountainous plains. She found the dry, flat ground of Mesopotamia depressing. The King wanted to recreate her homeland.
Babylon rarely got rain and for the gardens to survive, it would have to have been irrigated by using water from the Euphrates River. People would have probably had to lift water very far into the air at each level. A chain pump was probably used to help. A chain pump is two large wheels on top of each other. Buckets are hung on a chain that connects the wheels. The bucket goes into the water then comes up and goes into a new pool.The empty buckets go back into the water to be refilled. The water at the top is then emptied through into a channel gate that is like a artificial stream to water the gardens.
Construction of the garden wasn't only complicated by getting water to the top, but also by having to avoid having the water wreck the foundation once it was released. Stone was difficult to get in Mesopotamian. Most of the buildings in Babel used brick.

THE MATTERHORN

 An English mountaineer, Edward Whymper, led the first successful climb to the top of the Matterhorn in 1865. That first climb turned out to be really sad. Out of seven, four people died when a rope snapped and they plunged down the north face. One of the bodies was never found.
The Matterhorn is well known for it's magnificent outline and it's position above the Swiss village of Zermatt. If you've visited Disney Land in California you have no doubt seen a replica of it.
The Matterhorn is not the highest mountain in the Alps, or even the highest peak in Switzerland, but it has four very marked ridges and faces that make it look like a pyramid. Its beauty is made even more striking by the way it stands by no other mountain close by.
About 40 million years ago, the Alps were created, when two sections of the Earth's crust crashed into each other, throwing up rock into a chain of buckled, folded mountains.

THE GRAND CANYON

The Grand Canyon is located in the northwest part of Arizona.
The Grand Canyon was made by the cut of running water. The Colorado River flows through the canyon. Some people think the Colorado River was there to start with and that over the years it cut through the rock, and now it is still there.
If you look in the canyon, you can see many layers of rock.
Geologists believe these rocks are at least two billion years old, which is almost certainly true, but no one can be exact.
About 500 million years ago, tiny sea creatures called trilobites lived in the sea. When they died, minerals from the ocean replaced their cells in their bodies. Then a long time after, the bodies petrified, they were fossils. There are no fossils at the bottom of the canyon, but near the top, you can find trilobites, and sometimes even footprints or so of reptiles.
Hiking in the Grand Canyon is very different from any other hiking because of its dry climate. Rangers say you need at least three liters of water for going down the canyon per day (remember, this is per person). You need less water in the winter, but you have to watch for freezing cold, rain, sleet or snow. You shouldn't have bare skin and in the summer you should wear light clothes and a hat. You should hike in the coolest part of the day and rest in shade at mid-day.
The weather is, well, very odd. In the middle of the canyon it gets very hot and dry. On the North Rim it is like the mountains. On the South Rim, it's a mixture of hotness and mountain-like. And canyon walls are pretty dry.
Three bridges cross the river: The Navajo, (used for vehicles) and two suspension bridges. Until 1907, the only way to cross the river was by a ferry. Later on, E.D. Wolly made a trail from the North to South rim. In 1921, they built a swinging bridge.

THE VICTORIA FALLS

 One of the greatest waterfalls in the whole world lies on the Zimbezi River, which forms the border between Zambia and Zimbabwe. Some people think it is one of the most beautiful sights in the world! Upstream, the river flows through a wide valley. You could probably see Victoria Falls from 25 to 40 miles away, and see its spray rising 1,000 feet into the air from seven miles away! Long before you even see the waterfalls you can hear the roaring of the water! The native people call it "mosi-oa-tunya" which means "smoke that thunders." The falls were formed by a deep rift in the rock that lies directly across the path of the Zimbezi River. The rift was caused by movement of the earth about 150 million years ago. At the broadest point, the falls are 5,545 feet across. The height of the falls varies from 256 feet to about 354 feet in the center.
Victoria falls was discovered by David Livingstone in 1855. The falls were named in honor of Queen Victoria.
There is no wonder Victoria Falls is a Wonder of The Natural World!

THE GREAT BARRIER REEF

 The Great Barrier Reef is actually a series of smaller reefs. Reefs form under water and can be made of coral, sand, or rock. The top of the reef sits about two to three feet below sea level. Coral reefs are found in warm, shallow, clean water. The Great Barrier Reef is the largest reef of all, stretching an amazing 1,250 miles, or 2,000 kilometers, across the blue of the ocean. It forms a natural break water between the strong waves of the Pacific and the coast of Australia. It's location is in the Coral Sea, the area of the Pacific close to Australia's northeastern coast. The waters around it cover roughly 80,000 square miles, or 208,000 kilometers, an area slightly smaller than the state of Minnesota.
Reefs may be found as deep as 250 feet below the surface. Corals that grow below 150 feet don't make very good reef builders.
There are three different groups in which all reefs are classified. The first reef type is called a Fringing reef. This reef is formed as coral grows in the shallow waters along the shores of land. A barrier reef, such as the Great Barrier reef, grows some distance from the shore before coming close to the surface. A lagoon separates the barrier reef from the shore. An Atoll reef is a circular reef, usually with a lagoon in the center. The waves of the lagoon cover a submerged island. The reef grows in layers over the island.
There are many islands on the Great Barrier reef made of coral sand that has piled up to make islands. Coral sand is formed when waves constantly wash over the dead coral, breaking it in to sand. These islands have been given the name Coral Cays. Most Coral Cays are impossible to reach by boat. They are hard to see, and the sharp coral can tear out the bottom of a boat. Ancient shipwrecks can still be found among the coral!
Reefs as large as the Great Barrier Reef take thousands of years to develop. If you happen to visit a reef, any reef, be careful to not step on living coral. Most grow slowly, maybe less than two inches, or five centimeters a year. It would take years to replace it!
About three hundred fifty types of coral live and grow on the Great Barrier Reef. All have different skeleton shapes. One kind of coral looks like deer antlers! It is called staghorn coral, and is one of the more common corals on the reef. It is also one of the fastest growers. It can grow up to 4 inches, or 10 centimeters, a year!
Not only do the corals make up the reef itself, but they are home to many different creatures. Many types of fish depend on the coral to protect them.
Hundreds of miles along the reef have not been explored, but of what has, the beauty is breath taking!

MOUNT EVEREST

 Mount Everest is one of the tallest mountains in the world. It is part of the Himalayan Mountains. They were formed in the last few million years. After the supercontinent of Laurasia broke up millions of years ago, India moved slowly north towards Asia and then crashed into it. The seabed between the two plates (the earth's crust is divided into large areas of land called plates) was crumbled and pushed up on the northern rim of India to form mountains. These two plates of the earth's crust are still moving, so the Himalayas are being pushed up higher.
The highest mountain on the planet, Mount Everest is growing two inches taller each year. Satellite technology says the mountain is currently 29,107 feet tall. First recognized as the highest peek in 1852, it got its western name ten years later in 1862. Mount Everest was named for Sir George Everest (1790-1866), a British surveyor. Surveyors don't agree on the height of Mount Everest. The British government in the 1800's thought the height was 29,002 feet. In 1954 the Indian government said it's 29,028 feet, but a widely used unofficial figure says it is 29,141 feet!
Mount Everest sits on the border between Nepal and Tibet.
People from the western hemisphere weren't allowed to climb Mount Everest until the early 1920's. The first known climb that made it to the top was made by a New Zealander named Edmund Hillary and a Napalese named Tenzing Norgay. They climbed the mountain in 1953. Since then Everest has been climbed by 400 people. Access is restricted by the Nepalese to prevent too much damage to the environment.
Mount Everest is 97 degrees below freezing, talk about cold!

AYERS ROCK

 Ayers Rock is one of the oldest rocks on Earth. It is located in Australia. "Uluru," as Ayers Rock is called by Aborigines, is a sacred site for them. Aborigines have rights over Uluru. Uluru is in the middle of Simpson Desert. Aborigines think of it as a symbol of all creation.
Uluru was formed over a period of about 500 million years, and it was created when sand piled up on the bottom of an ocean that once covered the middle of Australia. Over the years, wind and rain have beat at the rock. By now, the flattened top is 1,142 feet above the plains and the base is an amazing 5 miles around!
Uluru is covered with caves. The aborigines believe these caves hold a spiritual significance. Along with caves, the sides of Uluru have many grooves, formed by rain running down its sides. There is a national park surrounding Uluru, called, (of course,) Uluru National Park. This park is home to over 150 types of birds and 26 types of mammals.
There is an Aborigine legend that Uluru was once an ocean, but after a great battle at its shores, it rose up in revolt at the bloodshed, forming the great blood-colored rock.